Muslim Scientific Inventions
The Muslim Scholar
Muslims distinguished themselves not only as theoretical
scientists and scientific thinkers, but contributed through innumerable
inventions to the growth of the modern sciences. Though the mediaeval Muslims
had very meager resources at their command as compared to those of the present
age, they achieved a great deal. They replaced the old speculative method of
the Greeks with an experimental method, which in later periods formed the basis
of all scientific investigations.
The Inventions
The Telescope
Abul Hasan is distinguished as the inventor of the Telescope, which
he described to be a “Tube, to the extremities of which were attached
diopters".
The Pendulum
The Pendulum was invented by Ibn Yunus, a genius in science who
lived in the reign of Aziz Billah and Hakim bi-Amr-illah, the Fatimid monarchs
of Egypt. The invention of the Pendulum led to the measurement of time by its
oscillations. His outstanding work Sijul Akbar al-Hakimi, named after his
celebrated patron Hakim bi-Amr-illah, was acknowledged to be the masterpiece on
the subject replacing the work of Ptolemy. It was translated into Persian by
Omar Khayyam in 1079.
The Watch
The first watch was made by Kutbi, a renowned watch-maker of his
time. During the Abbasid reign the use of a watch became quite common and the
famous Harun-ar-Rashid once despatched a watch as a gift to his celebrated
contemporary, the French Emperor Charlemagne. At that time a watch was
considered a novel thing in Europe and was regarded as an object of
wonder.
Mustansariya, the well-known university of Baghdad had a unique clock with a
dial blue like the sky and a sun which continually moved over its surface
denoting the time. Maulana Shibli, the famous Urdu litterateur, has described a
watch of Damascus in the following words:
"The watch was kept in the door of a wall. It contained copper plates and
twelve doors. There was an Eagle (Bat) standing in the Ist and the last plate.
At the end of each hour, these two eagles lay down on the copper plates and
hence a sound was produced to show the time. At twelve all the doors were
closed. This system was being repeated continuously".
The construction of water clocks was also common in Islamic Countries.
"The Arabs were skilful in the construction of clepsydras and water clocks
with automata," says a European writer.
The Mariners Compass
The invention of Mariners Compass, which revolutionised sea borne commerce and
oceanic shipping and enabled the Arabs to roam over the stormy seas in quest of
new lands and additional markets for their commodities, is essentially a
contribution of the Muslims to the world of science.
Knowledge about the properties of the needle, can no doubt be traced to Chinese
sources, but putting it into working shape, in the form of a mariners' compass,
was the achievement of Muslim scientists. The compass was probably invented for
the purpose of finding out the Qibla for Prayers.
Gunpowder
Mir Fatehullah Khan is
known to history as the inventor of gun and gunpowder. The presumption that
gunpowder was first made by the Chinese does not stand the test of historical
research. Writing in his book Arab Civilization, the author says that
"gunpowder was a great invention of the Arabs who were already using
guns". Guns were used by Arabs in 1340 A.D. in the defence of Al-Bahsur,
when Franzdol besieged it. The statement of Dr. Leabon about the invention of
gunpowder by the Arabs is further corroborated by Mr. Scott in his well-known
work, History of the Moorish Empire in Spain.
"It has been acknowledged by Joseph Hell in his book, Arab Civilization,
that the distinction of inventing photography goes to Ibn al-Hashem, who is not
only credited with its invention but also its development. Muhammad Musa, a
great scholar of geography, has the unique distinction of being the inventor of
an instrument by which the earth could be measured. He also invented the
"Astrolabe". These novel instruments invented by him have been preserved
in the Museum of Madrid (Spain)."
Shipping instrument
A unique instrument was invented by Abu Solet Umayyah in 1134
A.D. through which a sunken ship would be raised - which greatly helped in the
salvage expeditions of mediaeval times.
Manufacturing Soap,
Paper and Cloth
The credit for manufacturing soap goes to Arab chemists, who introduced it to
the world.
The first paper in Islamic countries was manufactured in 794 A.D. in Baghdad
by Yusuf Bin Omar. The paper
manufactured in Arab countries was of superior
quality than that made in Europe.
A paper mill was established in Baghdad, and soon paper replaced parchment
(skin of animals) and papyrus ('paper' made from plants). the development of
paper made knowledge and learning easier, for more people were able to have
access to it.
In the manufacture of cloth, Muslims particularly in Spain exhibited marvellous
skill and taste. Their woven cloth captured almost all the big markets of the
world and was considered to be the finest as well as extremely durable.
The Windmill
Al-Masudi who died in Cairo in 957 A.D. may be called the
"Pliny of the Arabs" In his celebrated work The Meadows of Gold, he
has described an earthquake, and the first windmill which was also invented by
a Muslim.
Astronomy and Navigation
Giralda or "The
Tower of Seville", was the first observatory in Europe. It was built in
1190 A.D., in the Spanish town of Seville under the supervision of the
celebrated Mathematician, Jabir Ibn Afiah. It was meant for the observation of
heavenly bodies. It was later turned into a belfry by Christian conquerors,
who, after the expulsion of the Moors, did not know how to use it.
The many references to astronomy in the Qur'an and hadith, and the injunctions
to learn, inspired the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They
integrated the earlier works of the Indians, Persians and Greeks into a new
synthesis.
Ptolemy (a 2nd Century Greek writer)'s 'Almagest' (the title as we know it
today is actually Arabic) was translated, studied and criticized. Muslims were
inspired to investigate and study the Earth, the features of the land, methods
of mapping and so on. Many new stars were discovered, as we see in their Arabic
names - Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran.
Astronomical tables were compiled, among them the Toledan tables, which were
used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler.
These works were used to determine the direction of Makkah from various
locations, to improve navigation and surveying, and establishing correct time
keeping and calanders.
Using longitude and latitude, calculating the circumference of the Earth within
a few hundred miles, the Muslim geographers so greatly improved on Ptolemy's
famous 'Almagest', that it is not certain how much of the work actually
belongs to the famous Greek, and how much was added to successive copies.
Also compiled were almanacs - another Arabic term. Other terms from Arabic are
zenith, nadir, Aledo, azimuth.
Muslim astronomers were the first to establish Observatories, like the one built at Mugharah
by Hulagu, the son of Genghis Khan, in Persia, and they invented instruments
such as the quadrant and astrolabe, which led to advances not only in astronomy
but in oceanic navigation, contributing to the European age of Exploration.
Other instruments used by Muslim astronomers and navigators were the quadrant
and the plan sphere, a large, complicated device for plotting stars.
Observatories were set up in desert locations where the best observations could
be made. Accurate measurement of time used very similar mathematical skills to
those needed for navigation. Al-Biruni, for example, wrote a mathematical
treatise on shadows that helped calibrate sundials accurately.
Astrolobe
The Astrolobe is perhaps the most famous of 'Islamic inventions'. Primitive
astrolobes were developed by the Greeks, but the refinements made by the Muslim
Mathematicians, and craftsmen made them more accurate and versatile.
When the device entered Europe through Spain and Italy, it was the latest in
high technology. In the storyteller of 'The Canterbury Tales',
Geoffery Chaucer, wrote instructions on its use. The well-known romance of
Heloise and Abelard resulted in a son they named - Astrolobe!
ther instruments used by Muslim astronomers and navigators were
Mathematics
Bold experiments and unique innovations in the field of mathematics were
carried out by Muslim mathematicians who developed this science to an
exceptionally high degree. Algebra may be said to have been invented by the
Greeks, but according to Oelsner, "it was confined to furnishing amusement
for the plays of the goblet" Muslims developed it and applied it to higher
purposes.
Thus, The first great Muslim mathematician, Al-Khawarizmi, invented
the subject of algebra (al-Jabr), which was further developed by others, most
notably Umar Khayyam. Al-Khawarizmi's work, in Latin translation, brought the
Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to Europe, through Spain. The word
"algorithm" is derived from his name.
The Muslims invented the symbol for zero (The word "cipher" comes
from Arabic sifr), and they organized the numbers into the decimal system -
base 10. Additionally, they invented the symbol to express an unknown quantity,
i.e. variables like x.
They invented spherical trigonometry, discovered the tangent and were first,
"to introduce the sine of arc in Trigonometrical Calculations" Zero
is an invaluable addition made to mathematical science by the Muslims. They
have also shown remarkable progress in mathematical geography.
Medical Sciences
The Muslims have made a lasting contribution to the development of Medical
Science. Razi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Abu Ali al-Hasan
(Alhazen) were the greatest medical scholars of mediaeval times.
Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, the famous physician and scientist, (d.
932), was the inventor of "Seton" in Surgery and the
author of 'Al-Judari wal Hasbak', an authentic book dealing with
measles and small pox.
Seen as one of the greatest physicians in the world in the
Middle Ages, Razi stressed empirical
observation and clinical medicine and was unrivalled as a diagnostician. He
also wrote a treatise on hygiene in hospitals.
Kahaf Abul-Qasim Al-Sahabi was a very famous surgeon in the
eleventh century, known in Europe for his work, 'Kitab al-Tasrif' (Concessio).
Avicenna wrote 'Al-Qanun Jil Tib known as Cannon', which was the
most widely studied medical work of mediaevel times and was reprinted more than
twenty times during the last 30 years of the 15th century in many different
languages. The book remained a standard textbook even in Europe, for over 700
years.
Alhazen was the world's greatest authority on "optics".
The contagious character of the plague and its remedies were
discovered by Ibn Katina, a Moorish Physician.
Other significant contributions were made in
pharmacology, such as Ibn
Sina's 'Kitab al-Shifa' (Book of Healing), and in public
health. Every major city in the Islamic world had a number of excellent
hospitals, some of them teaching hospitals, and many of them were specialized
for particular diseases, including mental and emotional. The Ottomans were
particularly noted for their building of hospitals and for the high level of
hygiene practiced in them.
Glass
Ibn Firnas is credited with making glass from stones. He had
constructed his home as a sort df planetarium where one could see stars, clouds
and even lightning.
Attempts at flight
According to Hitti, "Ibn Firnas was the first man in Arab history to
make a scientific attempt at flight. His flying equipment consisted of a suit of
feathers with wings, which, we are told carried him a long distance, in the
air. When he alighted, however, he hurt himself because his suit was not
provided with a tail."
